Cocoa pod.

The history of cocoa in Trinidad and Tobago

For over 200 years, cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) has been a major player in Trinidad and Tobago’s economic and social development. The industry boasts a rich history that began in 1525 when the Spanish introduced Criollo beans. This article looks at the history of cocoa in Trinidad and Tobago.

By the 18th century, Trinidad and Tobago was a top cocoa producer, thanks to a booming trade in Trinitario cocoa, a hybrid of the original Criollo and imported Forastero varieties. This golden age peaked in 1830, with Trinidad and Tobago ranking as the world’s third-largest cocoa producer, supplying a whopping 20% of the global market (before Ghana’s large-scale cultivation).

Between 1866 and 1920, cocoa reigned supreme as the island nation’s economic engine. Strong global demand for cocoa products and stable prices fuelled this dominance.

However, a series of events conspired to slow production after 1921, when cocoa output reached its peak of 75 million pounds (34,000 tonnes). A global cocoa glut, especially from West Africa, triggered a price decline.

This unfortunate timing coincided with the Great Depression, the arrival of Witches Broom disease, a surge in world sugar prices, and the emergence of the local oil industry, which lured away agricultural labour. The traditional plantation system also shifted towards small-scale farming.

In 1945, the government established the Cocoa Board of Trinidad and Tobago to revive the industry. Despite these efforts, cocoa cultivation continued to decline, with the area under cultivation shrinking from an estimated 46,000 hectares in 1969 to 20,000 hectares by 1986. Labour shortages further hampered the industry by the 1970s.

The past three decades have witnessed a steady decline in production, exports, cultivated land, and farmer participation. Currently, production hovers around 1.2-2.3 million kgs (3-5 million pounds) per year, with an estimated 3,500 local farmers growing cocoa and coffee.

Without significant intervention, Trinidad and Tobago’s once-thriving cocoa industry risks disappearing altogether. The island nation has a unique advantage: its high-quality cocoa faces no restrictive quotas and enjoys a ready market.

Stakeholders across the industry agree – Trinidad and Tobago must not abandon this “crop well suited for its soil and climate”. A revitalisation programme is urgently needed to prevent the loss of niche markets due to unreliable supply. Moreover, with proper planning, a resurgence of the cocoa industry could unlock significant revenue generation through downstream processing.

From Spanish introduction to Trinidadian treasure: The early cocoa story

Chocolate’s Caribbean beginnings: A tale of Spanish seeds, French migrants, and freed slaves

Cocoa has been a key player in Trinidad and Tobago’s social and economic development for over two centuries. Historical records suggest the Spanish introduced the prized Criollo variety in 1525. By the 18th century, commercial cocoa cultivation began, fuelled by plants brought from Venezuela around 1678. However, a natural disaster in 1727 nearly wiped out the industry.

Undeterred, Trinidad and Tobago turned to Venezuela again in 1757, this time for the hardier Forastero variety. These newcomers eventually interbred with the remaining Criollo trees, giving rise to the unique Trinitario cocoa.

The Spanish Cedula of Population in 1783 marked a turning point. This policy encouraged French migrants to settle and cultivate the land, leading to a significant expansion of cocoa production. The subsequent Negro Code of 1789 further solidified this growth by establishing a plantation system heavily reliant on enslaved labour. Land grants, slave labour, and export prices dictated the economic realities of cocoa during this period.

The abolition of the slave trade in 1807 led to a Crown Lands Utilisation programme. This initiative offered these lands at low costs, and many freed slaves, exercising their squatter’s rights, took advantage of this opportunity. Cocoa became the dominant crop on these newly acquired lands, giving rise to a large class of small-scale cocoa farmers.

The period between 1840 and 1866 saw moderate prosperity in the cocoa industry. However, a true boom arrived between 1866 and 1920, fuelled by soaring cocoa prices. As cocoa “dominated the economy”, numerous small and medium businesses flourished alongside the expanding trade. New villages sprung up, and a significant portion of society enjoyed a period of relative prosperity.

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The golden age of cocoa (1866-1920): A time of chocolate riches in Trinidad and Tobago

Chocolate’s rising star: By the mid-1800s, Europe and North America were developing a sweet tooth for chocolate. New manufacturing techniques led to the creation of chocolate bars and cocoa essence, fueling a surge in demand for cocoa beans. This global trend arrived just in time for Trinidad & Tobago.

Trinidad’s golden harvest: In 1830, the island nation was already the world’s third-largest cocoa producer, thanks to its unique Trinitario variety. The period between 1870 and 1920 marked a true golden age for the local industry.

Perfect timing

Increased demand and prices: European demand for cocoa skyrocketed, driving prices to attractive levels.

Favourable labour system: The indentureship system provided a steady supply of labour, unlike the limitations faced elsewhere.

Sugar’s decline: As sugar prices dipped, cocoa readily filled the void, becoming the island’s leading agricultural product.

Trinitario triumph: The expansion of Trinitario plantings across the island significantly increased cultivated land, from 2,400 hectares in 1856 to a staggering 90,000 hectares by 1917.

Several factors contributed to this prosperity

A system of opportunity: Emancipation led to a contract system where individuals could manage small cocoa estates and eventually become landowners. Additionally, attractive cacao mortgages offered investment opportunities. The Spanish peons, skilled in selecting prime land, further fuelled expansion by moving from region to region, establishing estates, and selling them when yields peaked.

The golden touch: Previously untouched areas like Matelot, Sangre Grande, and central Trinidad were transformed into thriving cocoa hubs. High prices, strong yields, and low wages made this era the pinnacle of the local cocoa industry.

A temporary blip: World War I brought challenges like shipping disruptions, a major consumer being at war (Germany), and a prolonged drought. Despite these obstacles, the industry showed resilience and rebounded after the war.

Peak production: In 1920, cocoa exports reached a staggering £3 million annually, representing 20% of the global supply. By 1921, production peaked at 33,590 tonnes, solidifying Trinidad & Tobago’s position as a top-five world producer.

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The fall from grace: A perfect storm dooms Trinidad’s cocoa industry

A price crash: After their golden years, Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa dreams began to sour. World cocoa prices tumbled due to a global oversupply, dropping from a high of $23.90 per fanega (around 110 lbs) in 1919-1920 to a mere $9.50 in 1921. Local production stagnated, while other regions, particularly West Africa, ramped up their output.

The Great Depression’s grip: The 1920s brought another blow – the Great Depression. This economic downturn forced the abandonment of unprofitable cocoa fields, leading many properties to become overgrown with secondary vegetation (“lastro” in the text).

A fungal foe: As if on cue, a fungal villain called Witches’ Broom disease (WB) emerged in May 1928. By September of that same year, this disease had ravaged a staggering 28% of cultivated land.

Shifting sands: The decline continued with a resurgence in sugar prices and the birth of the local oil industry. These new attractions lured away agricultural labourers, further straining the cocoa sector.

The 1930s: A decade of struggle: Inefficiency in production systems and persistently low market prices plagued the industry throughout the 1930s. The situation worsened as WB spread, reducing yields and requiring more labour to manage.

A ray of hope: A beacon of hope emerged in the form of disease-resistant planting materials developed by the Ministry of Agriculture and scientists from the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture (later the University of the West Indies). These efforts aimed to combat the devastating effects of WB.

Limited success, continued decline: Despite the Ministry’s intervention, challenges persisted. High production costs and low cocoa prices forced many to abandon their estates, leading to a significant drop in overall production. Additionally, aging trees on active estates yielded less fruit. Some farmers, facing low cocoa profitability, opted to switch to sugarcane cultivation.

Labour woes: The repatriation of thousands of indentured labourers to India between 1920 and 1932 further tightened the labour market. World War II exacerbated this issue, making it even harder to find workers.

The brink of extinction: By 1940, cocoa exports had plummeted to a mere 1.6% of the global supply. Production had fallen to 25 million lbs, and mean production per acre had halved from 360 lbs. The industry teetered on the brink of collapse before government intervention aimed at reviving it through subsidies and rehabilitation schemes.

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A shot in the arm: The rehabilitation scheme (1945-1965)

Faced with the near-collapse of the cocoa industry, the government took action. In 1938, a team of experts was assembled to recommend solutions, and the Cocoa Research Scheme (CRS) was launched in 1931. These were early steps towards a more comprehensive effort.

The Cocoa Board takes charge: In 1945, a crucial turning point arrived with the establishment of the Cocoa Board of Trinidad and Tobago. Its primary mission: to breathe new life into the struggling cocoa industry.

A plan for revival: The Cocoa Board wasted no time in launching a comprehensive rehabilitation scheme. This initiative focussed on replacing disease-susceptible cocoa trees with improved, locally-bred hybrids. Here’s what these new hybrids offered:

High yields: They boasted a “low pod index”, meaning they produced more pods per unit of branch.
Superior beans: The beans were larger, a desirable quality for the market.
Faster maturity: These trees reached maturity quicker, allowing farmers to reap the rewards sooner.
Flavor profile: The taste remained excellent, a key characteristic of Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa.
Disease resistance: They were specifically chosen for their resilience against Witches’ Broom disease and Ceratocystis wilt.

Breeding success: The Ministry of Agriculture spearheaded a hybridisation programme (1949-1980) that crossed Trinitario and Amazonian Forastero cocoa varieties. This proved highly successful, according to multiple sources (Freeman, 1975 & 1982; Montserin et al., 1957; Shripat, 1993; Gonsalves, 1996).

Planting the seeds of change: Millions of these disease-resistant, high-yielding cocoa plants were produced and distributed to farmers at subsidised costs. The annual distribution grew significantly, from 650,000 plants in 1955 to a staggering 1,552,324 trees by 1965. A network of propagation centres was established across the country to ensure a steady supply of these superior plants.

Supporting farmers: Generous subsidies were provided to farmers to encourage replanting with these improved varieties. A government-appointed committee closely monitored the Subsidy Scheme to ensure its effectiveness. The Ministry of Agriculture also provided clear guidelines for replanting, guiding farmers towards success.

A tale of two rebounds and a relentless decline

Post-war rebound (1945-1960s): The Cocoa Rehabilitation Scheme, launched in 1945, yielded positive results. Production rose from World War II lows, peaking between 1953-1956 at 22 million lbs (10,000 tons). This can be attributed to:

Relatively stable and high cocoa prices
The impact of the rehabilitation scheme with its disease-resistant, high-yielding plants

A downward spiral (1960s-1970s): Unfortunately, this progress wasn’t sustained. Exports dropped significantly by 1961, with several factors contributing to the decline:

Severe drought conditions (1957-1962)
Devastating effects of Hurricane Flora in 1964
Suspension of the Rehabilitation Scheme in 1967 due to diminishing returns

Limited success and labour shortages: Despite occasional spikes in exports when global prices were favourable (1968, 1970, 1972, 1975), the 1970s marked a challenging period. A critical shortage of agricultural labour further hampered the industry. By 1981, the distribution of disease-resistant planting material had dwindled to a mere 330,000 plants due to industry contraction and abuse of the subsidy programme.

Another rescue attempt (1979-1988): Facing the threat of complete collapse, the government launched another National Rehabilitation Programme (1979-1988). This initiative aimed to double cocoa production within a decade by offering incentives like subsidies, credit, and grants to farmers.

Limited gains, lingering decline: While production rose slightly to 7,800 tons in 1981, the overall trend remained negative. The area under cocoa cultivation shrunk steadily, dropping from an estimated 46,000 hectares in 1969 to a mere 20,000 hectares by 1986. Despite government efforts, the decline in Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa industry persisted.

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From 1988 to present day

Before 1988, cocoa was already entrenched in the agricultural identity of Trinidad and Tobago. The nation gained global recognition for producing Trinitario cocoa, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero beans. Trinitario beans are highly prized for their unique flavour profiles, making them a favourite among gourmet chocolatiers.

By the mid-20th century, however, cocoa production faced setbacks due to falling global prices, competition from other crops like sugarcane and oil, and socio-economic changes. By the late 1980s, cocoa farming had transitioned from a primary industry to a niche sector, supported mainly by small-scale farmers.

Cocoa production trends in 1988

In 1988, Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa industry was grappling with several challenges:

Aging plantations: Many of the cocoa trees were over 40 years old, leading to reduced productivity.
Labor shortages: Migration to urban centres and alternative employment opportunities contributed to a decline in farm labour.
Pests and diseases: The cocoa crop suffered from diseases such as Witches’ Broom and Black Pod, which diminished yields.
Low prices: The global cocoa market was volatile, with prices often too low to sustain profitability for farmers.

Despite these issues, the government recognised the importance of preserving the cocoa heritage and initiated measures to support the industry.

Government initiatives and policy shifts

From 1988 onwards, the government and related organisations began implementing strategies to revitalise the cocoa sector. Some key measures included:

Research and development: Institutions like the Cocoa Research Centre (CRC) at the University of the West Indies (UWI) conducted research to improve crop yields, develop disease-resistant strains, and maintain the genetic purity of Trinitario cocoa.
Farmer education: Training programmes were launched to equip farmers with knowledge of modern agricultural practices, pest management, and post-harvest techniques.
Export incentives: Efforts were made to promote Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa as a premium product in international markets.

These interventions laid the groundwork for a more resilient industry, but the road to recovery was far from smooth.

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The revival of fine-flavoured cocoa (1990s to 2000s)

The 1990s marked a gradual shift towards recognising the value of fine-flavoured cocoa. Trinidad and Tobago’s beans became increasingly sought after for their fruity, floral, and nutty notes. This period also saw the rise of boutique chocolate makers who were willing to pay a premium for high-quality cocoa.

International recognition

During this time, Trinidad and Tobago began participating in international cocoa competitions. The country’s cocoa consistently earned accolades for its exceptional quality, solidifying its reputation in the global market.

Rehabilitation of farms

The government and private sector collaborated to rehabilitate abandoned cocoa plantations. Programmes focussed on replanting trees, introducing shade management systems, and modernising fermentation and drying processes to enhance bean quality.

Organic and sustainable practices

Global demand for organic and sustainably sourced cocoa encouraged farmers to adopt environmentally friendly practices. Certification programmes such as Fair Trade and Rainforest Alliance became popular among Trinidadian producers, opening doors to niche markets.

Challenges in the 2000s

Despite these advancements, the cocoa industry faced recurring obstacles:

Climate change: Unpredictable weather patterns affected yields and increased the prevalence of pests and diseases.
Aging farmer demographic: Many cocoa farmers were nearing retirement age, with few younger individuals willing to take up the trade.
Infrastructure gaps: Inadequate infrastructure for processing and transportation hindered efficiency.
Competition: Cocoa from West Africa, though of lower quality, dominated global markets due to its lower cost of production.

Cocoa in the modern era (2010 to present)

Emergence of cocoa tourism

One of the innovative approaches to reinvigorating the cocoa sector was the introduction of cocoa tourism. Several estates, such as the Ortinola Great House and Tobago Cocoa Estate, began offering tours where visitors could learn about cocoa cultivation, fermentation, and chocolate-making processes. This not only provided additional income streams but also raised awareness of Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa heritage.

Craft chocolate movement

The global rise of the bean-to-bar chocolate movement fuelled demand for Trinitario cocoa. Local entrepreneurs also began crafting their own artisanal chocolate products, showcasing the unique flavours of Trinidadian cocoa. Brands like The Trinidad Chocolate Company and Sun Eaters Organics gained popularity both locally and internationally.

Youth engagement

Programmes were introduced to attract younger generations to cocoa farming. Initiatives like the Ministry of Agriculture’s “Young Cocoa Farmers’ Program” emphasised entrepreneurship, innovation, and sustainability.

Technological innovations

Modern technology played a pivotal role in overcoming traditional challenges. GPS mapping, drone monitoring, and automated processing equipment helped improve productivity and efficiency on cocoa farms.

Sustainability and climate resilience

To combat the effects of climate change, farmers increasingly adopted climate-resilient practices such as agroforestry and water conservation techniques. These efforts aligned with global trends toward sustainable agriculture, ensuring the long-term viability of the industry.

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Economic impact of cocoa production

Today, cocoa contributes significantly to Trinidad and Tobago’s agricultural exports, albeit on a smaller scale than its peak years. Fine-flavoured cocoa accounts for a niche yet lucrative segment of the global chocolate market. The industry also supports rural livelihoods and complements the nation’s eco-tourism offerings.

Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa in the global arena

The country’s cocoa remains synonymous with excellence, often featured in high-end chocolate products. Notably, it is one of the few origins recognised by the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO) as a producer of fine or flavour cocoa. This designation enhances its marketability and ensures a premium price for its beans.

Looking ahead: The future of cocoa in Trinidad and Tobago

The journey of cocoa production in Trinidad and Tobago from 1988 to the present day is a testament to resilience and innovation. However, the industry must continue evolving to address contemporary challenges and seize emerging opportunities. Key areas of focus include:

Youth empowerment: Encouraging younger generations to view cocoa farming as a viable and rewarding career.
Research and development: Advancing genetic research and developing more resilient cocoa varieties.
Market diversification: Expanding into value-added products such as cocoa butter, cosmetics, and health supplements.
Sustainability: Strengthening eco-friendly practices to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

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Conclusion

From its historical roots to its modern-day resurgence, cocoa production in Trinidad and Tobago has navigated a dynamic landscape of challenges and opportunities. The nation’s dedication to preserving the legacy of Trinitario cocoa ensures its continued relevance in the global chocolate industry. With strategic investments in innovation, sustainability, and community engagement, Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa sector is well-positioned for a bright and flavourful future.

Sources:

Cocoa Research Centre at UWI (crc.gov.tt)

International Cocoa Organization (icco.org)

Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (cardi.org)

Food and Agriculture Organization’s Caribbean page (fao.org/caribbean)

Visit Trinidad (visittrinidad.tt)

Tobago Cocoa Estate (tobagococoaestate.com)

Fine Chocolate Industry Association (finechocolateindustry.org)

World Cocoa Foundation (worldcocoafoundation.org)

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